CHARACTERIZATION OF FERMENTED PALM KERNEL CAKE USING LOCALLY ISOLATED CELLULOLYTIC FUNGI AND BACTERIA AS POTENTIAL ANIMAL FEED

Authors

  • Max Michael Samson Biotechnology Research Institute, University Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
  • Mailin Misson Biotechnology Research Institute, University Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
  • Cahyo Budiman Biotechnology Research Institute, University Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
  • Suryani Saalla Biotechnology Research Institute, University Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
  • Haslan Roslie Biotechnology Research Institute, University Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
  • Aliyah Madihah Asran Biotechnology Research Institute, University Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
  • Shafiquzzaman Siddiquee Biotechnology Research Institute, University Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
  • Khairul Azfar Kamaruzaman Biotechnology Research Institute, University Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
  • Azian Dakulah Kolej Vokasional Lahad Datu, Peti Surat 60173, 91111 Lahad Datu, Sabah, Malaysia
  • Adam Maia Kolej Vokasional Lahad Datu, Peti Surat 60173, 91111 Lahad Datu, Sabah, Malaysia
  • Siti Farhany Radin Kolej Vokasional Lahad Datu, Peti Surat 60173, 91111 Lahad Datu, Sabah, Malaysia
  • Rahinah Abdul Kolej Vokasional Lahad Datu, Peti Surat 60173, 91111 Lahad Datu, Sabah, Malaysia

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.11113/jurnalteknologi.v88.23659

Keywords:

Palm kernel cake, fungi, bacteria, cellulolytic, animal feed

Abstract

This study investigates the potential of locally isolated cellulolytic fungi and bacteria for fermenting palm kernel cake (PKC) as animal feed. The characterization includes physical observations, proximate analysis, reducing sugar, hemicellulose, and cellulose content, and cellulase activity. Bacterial fermentation was conducted for 7 days, while fungal fermentation extended to 14 days. The findings reveal comparable pH stability of fermented PKC of both bacteria and fungi (bacteria: 5.6-5.7, fungi: 5.3-5.6). Fungal fermentation resulted in a significant increase in crude fat (9.16% to 12.9%), protein (16.3% to 18.1%), and fiber content (14.3% to 18.1%) of the PKC. Conversely, bacterial fermentation led to a notable decrease in fat content (9.16% to 3.34%), a slight increase in protein, and fiber content of the PKC. Significantly higher reducing sugar levels were observed in fungal saccharification (149 μg) compared to bacterial (98 μg) on day 7 of fermentation. Efficient saccharification, as indicated by the cellulase activity in both bacterial and fungal fermentations, resulted in a decrease in hemicellulose and cellulose content over time. The findings suggest that fungal or bacterial fermentation of PKC can be utilized to customize feed formulations to meet the specific nutritional requirements of animals. This study provides valuable insights into optimizing fermentation conditions to enhance the nutritional value and digestibility of PKC for sustainable feed production.

 

References

Yarnold, J., H. Karan, M. Oey, and B. J. Hankamer. 2019. Microalgal Aquafeeds as Part of a Circular Bioeconomy. Trends in Plant Science. 24(10): 959–970. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2019.06.005.

Fróna, D., J. Szenderák, and M. Harangi-Rákos. 2019. The Challenge of Feeding the World. Sustainability. 11(20): 5816. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11205816.

Henchion, M., M. Hayes, A. M. Mullen, M. Fenelon, and B. Tiwari. 2017. Future Protein Supply and Demand: Strategies and Factors Influencing a Sustainable Equilibrium. Foods. 6(7): 53. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods6070053.

González, N., M. Marquès, M. Nadal, and J. L. Domingo. 2020. Meat Consumption: Which Are the Current Global Risks? A Review of Recent (2010–2020) Evidences. Food Research International. 137: 109341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109341.

Gržinić, G., A. Piotrowicz-Cieślak, A. Klimkowicz-Pawlas, R. L. Górny, A. Ławniczek-Wałczyk, L. Piechowicz, E. Olkowska, M. Potrykus, M. Tankiewicz, M. Krupka, G. Siebielec, and L. Wolska. 2023. Intensive Poultry Farming: A Review of the Impact on the Environment and Human Health. Science of the Total Environment. 858: 160014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160014.

Azizi, M. N., T. C. Loh, H. L. Foo, and E. L. Teik Chung. 2021. Is Palm Kernel Cake a Suitable Alternative Feed Ingredient for Poultry? Animals. 11(2): 338. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11020338.

Alagawany, M., S. S. Elnesr, M. R. Farag, R. Tiwari, M. I. Yatoo, K. Karthik, I. Michalak, and K. Dhama. 2020. Nutritional Significance of Amino Acids, Vitamins and Minerals as Nutraceuticals in Poultry Production and Health: A Comprehensive Review. Veterinary Quarterly. 41(1): 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/01652176.2020.1857887.

Koranteng, A. A. A., K. A. Gbogbo, B. Adjei-Mensah, T. Bouassi, C. T. F. Aïna, J. Glago, and T. Kokou. 2022. Impact of Palm Kernel Cake with or without Multi-Blend Enzyme on the Growth Performance and Carcass Traits of Sasso Broilers. International Journal of Veterinary Science and Medicine. 10(1): 80–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/23144599.2022.2125735.

Lu, H., V. Yadav, M. Zhong, M. Bilal, M. J. Taherzadeh, and H. M. N. Iqbal. 2022. Bioengineered Microbial Platforms for Biomass-Derived Biofuel Production: A Review. Chemosphere. 288: 132528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132528.

Kari, Z. A., S. A. M. Sukri, N. D. Rusli, K. Mat, M. B. Mahmud, N. N. A. Zakaria, W. Wee, N. K. A. Hamid, M. A. Kabir, N. S. N. A. Ariff, S. Z. Abidin, M. K. Zakaria, K. W. Goh, M. I. Khoo, H. V. Doan, A. Tahiluddin, and L. S. Wei. 2023. Recent Advances, Challenges, Opportunities, Product Development and Sustainability of Main Agricultural Wastes for the Aquaculture Feed Industry: A Review. Annals of Animal Science. 23(1): 25–38. https://doi.org/10.2478/aoas-2022-0082.

Sun, X., N. Debeni Devi, P. E. Urriola, D. G. Tiffany, J.-C. Jang, G. G. Shurson, and B. Hu. 2021. Feeding Value Improvement of Corn-Ethanol Co-product and Soybean Hull by Fungal Fermentation: Fiber Degradation and Digestibility Improvement. Food and Bioproducts Processing. 130: 143–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2021.09.013.

Lee, F. H., S. Y. Wan, H. L. Foo, T. C. Loh, R. Mohamad, R. Abdul Rahim, and Z. Idrus. 2019. Comparative Study of Extracellular Proteolytic, Cellulolytic, and Hemicellulolytic Enzyme Activities and Biotransformation of Palm Kernel Cake Biomass by Lactic Acid Bacteria Isolated from Malaysian Foods. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 20(20): 4979. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20204979.

Zeng, J., W. Huang, X. Tian, X. Hu, and Z. Wu. 2021. Brewer’s Spent Grain Fermentation Improves Its Soluble Sugar and Protein as Well as Enzymatic Activities Using Bacillus velezensis. Process Biochemistry. 111: 12–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2021.10.016.

Siddiquee, S., S. N. Shafawati, and L. Naher. 2017. Effective Composting of Empty Fruit Bunches Using Potential Trichoderma Strains. Biotechnology Reports. 13: 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.btre.2016.11.001.

Arsy, S. L., A. Oetari, and W. Sjamsuridzal. 2020. Solid-State Fermentation of Sterile Slurry and Palm Kernel Cake (PKC) Mixture Using Rhizopus azygosporus UICC 539. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 483(1): 012029. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/483/1/012029.

Horwitz, W., and G. Latimer. 1975. Official Methods of Analysis. Vol. 222. Washington, DC: Association of Official Analytical Chemists.

Alshelmani, M. I., T. C. Loh, H. L. Foo, W. H. Lau, and A. Q. Sazili. 2014. Biodegradation of Palm Kernel Cake by Cellulolytic and Hemicellulolytic Bacterial Cultures through Solid-State Fermentation. The Scientific World Journal. 2014: 729852. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/729852.

Miller, G. L. 1959. Use of Dinitrosalicylic Acid Reagent for Determination of Reducing Sugar. Analytical Chemistry. 31(3): 426–428. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac60147a030.

Goering, H. K., and P. J. Van Soest. 1970. Forage Fiber Analyses (Apparatus, Reagents, Procedures, and Some Applications). Agriculture Handbook No. 379. Washington, DC: Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Habtewold, J. Z., B. L. Helgason, S. F. Yanni, H. H. Janzen, B. H. Ellert, and E. G. Gregorich. 2020. Litter Composition Has Stronger Influence on the Structure of Soil Fungal than Bacterial Communities. European Journal of Soil Biology. 98: 103190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2020.103190.

Patel, A. K., C.-D. Dong, C.-W. Chen, A. Pandey, and R. R. Singhania. 2023. Production, Purification, and Application of Microbial Enzymes. In Biotechnology of Microbial Enzymes, 2nd ed., edited by G. Brahmachari, 25–57. Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-19059-9.00019-0.

Lateef, A., J. K. Oloke, E. B. Gueguim Kana, S. O. Oyeniyi, O. R. Onifade, A. O. Oyeleye, O. C. Oladosu, and A. O. Oyelami. 2008. Improving the Quality of Agro-Wastes by Solid-State Fermentation: Enhanced Antioxidant Activities and Nutritional Qualities. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology. 24(10): 2369–2374. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-008-9749-8.

Antia, U. E., N. U. Stephen, A. A. Onilude, I.-O. M. Udo, and T. J. Amande. 2023. Bioconvertibility of Mannan-Containing Polysaccharides to Bioethanol: A Comparative Study of Palm Kernel Cake and Copra Meal Feedstocks. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery. 13(6): 5175–5186. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.11971.53289.

Weimer, P. J. 2022. Degradation of Cellulose and Hemicellulose by Ruminal Microorganisms. Microorganisms. 10(12): 2345. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10122345.

Charalampopoulos, D., S. S. Pandiella, and C. Webb. 2002. Growth Studies of Potentially Probiotic Lactic Acid Bacteria in Cereal-Based Substrates. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 92(5): 851–859. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2672.2002.01592.x.

Iluyemi, F. B., M. M. Hanafi, O. Radziah, and M. S. Kamarudin. 2006. Fungal Solid-State Culture of Palm Kernel Cake. Bioresource Technology. 97(3): 477–482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2005.03.005.

Tse, T. J., D. J. Wiens, and M. J. T. Reaney. 2021. Production of Bioethanol—A Review of Factors Affecting Ethanol Yield. Fermentation. 7(4): 268. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation7040268.

Ng, T. K., and J. G. Zeikus. 1981. Comparison of Extracellular Cellulase Activities of Clostridium thermocellum LQRI and Trichoderma reesei QM9414. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 42(2): 231–240. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.42.2.231-240.1981.

Fasuyi, A., S. Abiodun, and O. J. A. Akomolafe. 2014. Bioconversion and Enzymes Fortification of Palm Kernel Meal as Protein Supplement in Broiler Rations. American Journal of Experimental Agriculture. 4(7): 767–781. https://doi.org/10.9734/AJEA/2014/6893.

Sabu, A., A. Pandey, M. Jaafar Daud, and G. Szakacs. 2005. Tamarind Seed Powder and Palm Kernel Cake: Two Novel Agro Residues for the Production of Tannase under Solid-State Fermentation by Aspergillus niger ATCC 16620. Bioresource Technology. 96(11): 1223–1228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2004.11.002.

Prabaningtyas, R. K., D. N. Putri, T. S. Utami, and H. Hermansyah. 2018. Production of Immobilized Extracellular Lipase from Aspergillus niger by Solid-State Fermentation Method Using Palm Kernel Cake, Soybean Meal, and Coir Pith as the Substrate. Energy Procedia. 153: 242–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2018.10.010.

Downloads

Published

2026-02-27

Issue

Vol. 88 No. 2: March 2026

Section

Science and Engineering

License

Copyright of articles that appear in Jurnal Teknologi belongs exclusively to Penerbit Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (Penerbit UTM Press). This copyright covers the rights to reproduce the article, including reprints, electronic reproductions, or any other reproductions of similar nature.